Native american Essay -- essays research papers

People had already been living in the Americas for thousands of years before the Europeans â€Å"discovered† the Americas. When the Europeans invaded this land they brought with them diseases such as smallpox, malaria, yellow fever, plague, typhus, and influenza contagions that repeatedly spread through the Native American peoples, killing them in high numbers. At the time the United States was settled by Europeans, it was abundantly populated by dozens of separate nations with diverse civilizations and cultures. Despite their initial confusion to their situation after the arrival of Europeans, the Native Americans did not take their disenfranchisement from their own land lying down. Native Americans have a long history of "fighting back" against invaders encroaching on the land that they had lived on for as long as they could remember. Before the arrival of white people to the continent, Native Americans still engaged in war between the various different tribes. Their reasons for fighting each other were drastically different than the reasons they had when fighting non-Native Americans. Some Native American battles were fought for revenge. The most common cause of war between Native American groups was probably to defend or enlarge tribal territory. Later, their conflicts with white people were fought for trying to prevent the theft of their land, or in raids for food and supplies they were denied. When the Europeans invaded this country the native American people we...

Rudyard Kipling :: Essays Papers

Rudyard Kipling Rudyard Kipling, born in Bombay, India, on December 30, 1865, made a significant contribution to English Literature in various genres including poetry, short story and novel. His birth took place in an affluent family with his father holding the post of Professor of Architectural Sculpture at the Bombay School of Art and his mother coming from a family of accomplished women. He spent his early childhood in India where an "aya" took care of him and where under her influence he came in direct contact with the Indian culture and traditions. His parents decided to send him to England for education and so at the young age of five he started living in England with Madam Rosa, the landlady of the lodge he lived in, where for the next six years he lived a life of misery due to the mistreatment - beatings and general victimization - he faced there. Due to this sudden change in environment and the evil treatment he received, he suffered from insomnia for the rest of his life. This played an im portant part in his literary imagination. His parents removed him from the Calvinistic foster home and placed him in a private school at the age of twelve. The English schoolboy code of honor and duty affected his views in later life, especially when it involved loyalty to a group or a team. Returning to India in 1882 he worked as a newspaper reporter and a part-time writer and this helped him to gain a rich experience of colonial life which he later presented in his stories and poems. In 1886 he published his first volume of poetry, "Departmental Ditties" and between 1887 and 1889 he published six volumes of short stories set in and concerned with the India he had come to know and love so well. When he returned to England he found himself already recognized and acclaimed as a brilliant writer. Over the immediately following years he published some of his best works including his most acclaimed poem "Recessional" and most famed novel "Kim". In 1907 Kipling won the Nobel prize in literature in consideration of the power of observation, originality of imagination, virility of ideas and remarkable talent for narration which characterized his writings.

Free College Admissions Essays: Responding to Future Challenges :: College Admissions Essays

Responding to Future Challenges    As the world grows so do our challenges. Not only are our problems growing in number but they are also growing in complexity. There is scarcely a day that goes by when I don't hear about some new problem that will soon threaten us all. While some of these problems such as El Nino, earthquakes, and other natural disasters cannot be stopped -- there are other challenges such as the spread of racial hatred, rising risk of disease spread, and the growing levels of civil unrest throughout much of the world which threaten many lives everyday. Most of the future's challenges will only be made possible if all people, regardless of race, color, or nationality, attempt to work together for a stronger world. There are many ways in which I believe that I can help society meet this future challenge of coming together as a united world.    While I was an exchange student, I saw the world from a different point of view. For the first time, I realized that the people of the world have so many similarities in comparison to the few and insignificant differences. To make the people of the world unite would merely take time in convincing people of the world that we are all in pursuit of the same basic goals. All that it would take to show that this could be done is two different cultures to unite and then the rest of the world what can come by the strength all gain by coming together.    I believe that I can help in solving some of the barriers that hold us back from completing the task that we all desire which is unity. I served as a miniature version of a diplomat when I was an exchange student. I helped people in another country see that we all have common goals and I also helped sever the bonds to racial hatred by providing them insight into the American way of thinking and they did likewise for me. I have done everything to help sever these ancient bonds and will continue to do so in the future as I feel I am called to do.    Many suffer problems on a much less grandiose scale. Although these problems may not seem to be as big as world peace or global warming, they are however present.

Marijuana research paper Essay

In today’s society there are a list of many banned drugs which in coincidence are the five most used drugs by most individuals. These drugs are methamphetmine, cocaine heroine, ecstasy and marijuana, out of all five of these drugs one that I believe to be the most scrutinized is marijuana, known also as cannabis. I believe this drug is the most harmless illegal substance in the world, especially when compared to its counterparts. Marijuana not only has the least negative side effects to your body but it is also the only drug that is used in a social, musical, medical and cultural manner. The most popular of all recreational drugs, Cannabis, or Marijuana, Grass, Hemp, Weed, Pot, Hash, Dope or a variety of regional names has been cultivated for thousands of years. Derived in various forms from the Cannabis plants, Cannabis Indica or Cannabis Sativa, is native to central Asia but its cultivation and use is global. It is a Psychoactive and a Psychedelic. It can be smoked as leaves or flower buds, it can be ground down to isolate the crystallized sap and then pressed into a solid, or the resin extracted by collection via contact with the sticky plant parts.(http://listverse.com) This excerpt from listverse.com explains why marijuana use is so commonly used not only in America but across the globe. What makes this drug adorn by many of it users are also the proclaimed â€Å"negative† side effects, constant smoking or overdosing on marijuana results in â€Å"being forgetful, over sleeping, not getting things done, concentration difficulties, neglecting work or duties, loss of balance or dizziness, problems with performing tasks, and nausea (Hammersley, R. and V. Leon, 2006).† These side effects may not be looked too as negative by on the user, especially when compared to its counterparts. An overdose of methamphetamine, cocaine and heroine will almost always lead to â€Å"seizures, coma, and loss of a life† (http://mental-health.emedtv.com) Marijuana is acclaimed by many of its users as the â€Å"ultimate stress reliever† and what better place relieve stress than at college, a place where for four to five days out of the week students are overwhelmed with the stresses that come from the many classes they take. This explains why college is a perfect example of marijuana being used in a social setting where one can obtain the drug in a calm environment with little authority from parents or the police. Through my college experience I have met students who enter college deciding they will never smoke a day in their life, I have also met students who admit they were peer pressured into at least trying the substance and I have met students who have said they tried marijuana out of straight curiosity. In an interview held with a female Old Westbury student, who’s name is preferred not to be mentioned, I asked the student â€Å"how long have you been smoking marijuana?† student replied â€Å"I would consider myself a newcomer to smoking pot, I started this semester.† I then asked â€Å"why did you choose marijuana out of all illegal drugs to use?† she replied â€Å" I honestly choose marijuana because all of my friends were doing it, I saw after smoking many of them would go from uptight to calm and funny, not having a care in the world, I wanted to feel for myself what the â€Å"hype† was and depending on how I reacted to pot would determine if I would continue smoking or not†. My last question before ending the interview was the big one, â€Å"Do you still continue to smoke marijuana†, with a smirk on her face she said â€Å"yes I do, not often like my friends but on Thursday after a long week of homework and classes I smoke one to ease my mind and forget about my tough week, plus it puts me to bed (laughing)†. Marijuana use has and still continues to be a cultivating driving force in the music industry, specifically hip hop. During the 80’s and 90’s many of the great hip hop legends; Dr. Dre, Tupac Shakur and Notorious Biggie Smalls all have been known for there outstanding musical abilities but also for their public habit of smoking or as the street term calls it â€Å"getting high.† Many individuals look at these artist and automatically assume ignorance when in fact when under the influence of marijuana these artist have said some of the most prolific lines in hip hop. Tupac Shakur is quoted saying I believe that everything that you do bad comes back to you. So everything that I do that’s bad, I’m going to suffer from it. But in my mind, I believe what I’m doing is right. So I feel like I’m going to heaven. This quote spoke meant allot to me and I’m sure to many young adults that are just like me who live a life of violence and chaos. Often as teenagers we feel that since we are not living the supposedly â€Å"Godly† way that includes attending church regularly, helping other and praying at night that we ourselves don’t hold a place in heaven, that we are the scums of the earth. Lines such as these mentally help us make it through our days and allow us to understand that they are other people out there who are going or have went through our daily struggles. Hearing words like that from your icon, you can only imagine the relief that boy’s and girl’s feel knowing someone who made it out a bad situation was going through exactly what you were, simple words can really make an outstanding difference to an individual. Marijuana in the music industry is not only used through the rappers who say the lyrics but it is used also by the producer’s who come up with the beat and flow, the core of the song that sometimes allows you to feel the music in a way that no rapper may be able to get across. Famous producers such Pharell and rap mogul Dr. Dre are both Grammy winners who make their music while under the influence, the drug puts them in a calming place were their mind can roam and listen to each instruments and bring them together in harmony, yes this task can be done sober but these two producers have made some of the beast beats in the world, it only goes to show once again marijuana is not as self destruction drug as it rivals cocaine or heroine . Medical Cannabis refers to the use of the drug cannabis as a physician-recommended herbal therapy, most notably as an antiemetic. Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for approximately 4,000 years. Writings from ancient India confirm that its psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, insomnia,  headaches and as a pain reliever frequently used in childbirth.In the 1970s, a synthetic version of THC, the primary active ingredient in cannabis, was synthesized to make the drug Marinol. (Why Is Smoking Cigarettes Bad For You? | LIVESTRONG.COM) Marijuana is yet again used as a beneficial part of our society but instead of the individual users who use it for leisure or to have fun, marijuana is used for the sick and impaired. Known by its correct term as medical marijuana, the drug is used to relieve muscle spams, chronic pain,glaucoma, weight loss(in smoking marijuana one of the few side effect is called â€Å"the munches† during this time the user will crave to want food. People who don’t often eat will more than likely have a good portion plate of food or a snack) Aids and Cancer. Having a grandmother who was prescribed marijuana for her excessive swollen feet conditon I personally saw the positive effects the drug had her. Marijuana allowed my grandmother to relax and focus less attention on her feet, being under the influence put my grandmother in a happy place where her pain no longer bothered her as much as it would if she was sober. What she always enjoyed about marijuana was that she could smoke it, coming from the Caribbean’s smoking marijuana was a normal thing, something she had grown accustomed too. She much rather smoke instead of swallowing pills, being old fashioned she thought the side effects of pills would be detrimental to her health. Smoking marijuana has had an impact on the lives of those who suffer from depression and low self esteem. Joan Bello, author of The Benefits of Marijuana: Physical, Psychological & Spiritual, is quoted saying; Marijuana will not tolerate repression. Tranquilizers and depressants relax the body and release tension, but the state of mind associated with these drugs is â€Å"unconsciousness† whereby we escape rather than resolve our dilemmas. Alcoholism is an extreme need of both the body and personality sometimes to release the nervousness that has accumulated and continues to build up to an unbearable degree. It serves the same function for the collective personality for the society, as well A culture in which alcohol and tranquilizers are the prevalent form of release prefers not to witness  internal confusion and actually choose to act without conscious participation, maintaining a semi-numb condition. Mr. Bello not only speaks about the positive of marijuana use but he also speaks on how smoking puts you at a better state than one of its many counterparts alcohol, who when under the influence liquor individuals tend to act angry or in rage, marijuana users are always put in a calm statement, which is reason to why after smoking one side effect the user may feel is tiredness. Marijuana usage has not been secluded too only America, it has made a huge cultural impact on the tropical island community, specifically Jamaica. Jamaicans have a subset group of people on the island that participate in a religion known as Rastafri, as Catholics partake in the Eucharist and Muslims participate in Ramadan, the Rastafarian lifestyle usually includes ritual use of marijuana, avoidance of alcohol, the wearing of one’s hair in dreadlocks, and vegetarianism. Rastafrains look at marijuana as the hold plant and have scriptures in the bible to prove that they aren’t making it up, Psalm 104:14: â€Å"He causeth the grass for the cattle and herb for the service of man.† The marijuana or as they call it gangja is also used for social and medical purposes. Marijuana is used primarily during the two main Rastafari rituals: reasonings and nyabingi. The reasoning is an informal gathering at which a small group of Rastas smoke ganja and engage in discussion. The ritual begins when one person lights the pipe, or â€Å"chalice,† and recites a short prayer while all other participants bow their heads. The pipe is then passed around the circle until all of the people have smoked. The reasoning ends when the participants depart one by one. Rasta’s do not condone any other drug beside marijuana because it is the only God given plant, it is not tainted with any human contact unlike alcohol methamphetamine cocaine or heroine. These rastas normally live long healthy lives, which only proves that the drug does not do serious damage to your body. So far they are eighteen legalized marijuana states in the United states. Regardless what the majority may say I believe marijuana has made a positive impact on the world. . The amount of deaths that occur from smoking cigarets or drinking alcohol is in the millions and yet it is still being used, marijuana has had zero deaths in its history. The next time you see someone high or in the act of smoking think about the pros and cons and then make your decision.

Birth Control for Teenagers

The term birth control is generally defined as the â€Å"deliberate prevention of pregnancy using any of several methods† (â€Å"Birth Control†). It is sometimes referred to as contraception (â€Å"Birth Control†). A deeper view of the term would reveal that it ranges from the most popular, which is the pills, up to the traditional, which is the method of abstinence (Avert. org). Its definition alone does not prescribe anything about the age group as to whom this should be administered. Recent studies would place better light on the administration of birth control for teenagers as early as their age and the benefits would bounce back on to them.Likewise, the purpose of birth control is not the prevention of pregnancy alone but also includes health safety reasons and for medical purposes. It serves as a means of preventing the spread of HIV diseases among teenagers who are especially at risk for unprotected sexual intercourse. Moreover, pills, as one of the method s for birth control, are sometimes prescribed by doctors for â€Å"medical reasons, such as excessively heavy periods, severe menstrual cramps, or acne† (Greenfield).These purposes stated above places birth control means with a lot of uses and does not solely mean the prevention of pregnancy, as it is commonly referred to. The benefits of providing birth control for teenagers exceed the moral speculations attached to it. The speculations and allegations of the harm that birth control would bring would certainly place the teenagers at a very disadvantaged position. A primary benefit of birth control being given to teenagers is that it would increase their awareness at a very early age.Awareness of the birth control methods through proper education is not a means of preparing them to have sex. Rather, it is a means of preparing them to live healthy and responsible teenage lives. This would enable them to instill a sense of heightened awareness before they decide to engage in se x. The act of engaging into sexual intercourse by teenagers could not be avoided because of the stage of puberty they are going through. This is especially true with teenagers with teenagers with weak social support groups.Likewise, the awareness they receive at an early age would become a tool they could use to decide whether they would want to engage in sexual intercourse or not. With the use of the information they are properly provided, they would have the chance to enhance their decision-making skills and would give the chance to make informed decisions. In addition to an informed judgment, birth control would prevent unwanted pregnancies and would reduce the number of teenage parents. This would provide a great benefit for the USA in relation to the latest statistics on teenage pregnancies.According to the report, â€Å"The United States has the highest rates of teen pregnancy and births in the western industrialized world. Teen pregnancy costs the United States at least $9 b illion annually† (Teenpregnancy. org). With the alarming rate of teenage pregnancies today, it is best to mitigate the impact of such and help these teenagers as early as possible. It should be taken into account that the introduction of birth control to teenagers should be accompanied by several other factors for it to be considered as a successful one.First, it should have with it the proper information as stated earlier. Factors that should be considered when making the awareness campaign would have to be that it contains the proper use of such, its importance especially to the teenage group, the purpose behind it, and the persons or organizations to whom teenagers could talk to about this. It should be clearly shown that the purpose for giving them birth control is not to persuade them into having teenage sex. Rather, it is to prepare them and inform them about the risks and importance of planning for their future.Second, the important social support groups should constant ly give teenagers with advice with regard to sensitive issues related to birth control. They would serve as the ones who would reinforce the values laid down by proper information dissemination. Third, trust should be given by parents to their children when it comes to birth control. Along with trust should be the constant reminder of the things they need to do. More often than not, barriers to communication between the parents and the teenagers result to disagreements between the two and would even bring them dissatisfaction and rebellion.There is nothing wrong with teenagers receiving birth control especially so that abstinence is a form that is advocated by both religious and civic groups and is included in the list of birth control methods. This brings further light to the fact that birth control does not enhance the sexual activity of teenagers. Being the most vulnerable of them all, the opportunity to be protected, educated, and provided with birth control methods should never be taken away from them. It is a right which should be given to all women and men alike and to all age groups. Works Cited Avert. org.Birth Control and Contraception for Teenagers. 26 June 2007. Avert. 22 August 2008 [http://www. avert. org/cpills. htm]. â€Å"Birth Control. † In Microsoft ® Student 2007 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2006. Greenfield, Marjorie. Myths and Realities about Giving the Pill to Preteens, Teens. 2 August 2008. The Dr. Spock Company. 22 August 2008 [http://www. drspock. com/article/0,1510,6127,00. html]. Teenpregnancy. org. General Facts and Stats. November 2006. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. 22 August 2008 [http://www. teenpregnancy. org/resources/data/genlfact. asp].

French Revolution of 1789 Was a Major Cause of the Haitian Revolution of 1791

The French Revolution of 1789 led to the development and insertion of new political forces such as democracy and nationalism which was inspired by the Enlightenment of the mid-eighteenth century. It questioned the authority of the King, priests, nobles and religion on a whole; namely Catholicism. The revolution gave new meaning to the political ideas of the people. France’s involvement in the American Revolution had left the country in a massive financial crisis.Debt, inflation a lack of food and King Louis XVI lavish spending and heavy taxation on the Commons of society served to anger the people and so they demanded a new system of government. The Old Regime and Social Stratification in France Under the system of the Old Regime the King was seen in society as being the absolute monarch whose rule was ordained my God. The King had centralized power in the Royal Bureaucracy. In unison the King and the bureaucracy preserved royal authority and maintained a system of social stra tification stipulated by the Old Regime.The society in France was legally stratified by birth, divided into three Estates. The First Estate consisting of the clergy, the Second Estate; the nobility and the Third Estate the Commons which consisted of the bourgeoisie, city workers and peasants. The First Estate, the clergy which was also made up of members from the nobility enjoyed various privileges which were unavailable to those below their station in society. They paid no taxes and to support activities of the church collected tithes or taxes on income. The Second Estate, the nobility hardly paid taxes despite their great wealth.Their source of income came from rents and dues collected from the use of their farms and estates. The Third Estate resented the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and nobility. They were forced to pay taxes, tithes to the church and rent and dues to landlords for the land they occupied. This served to cause an upset in the society as it prevented the common s from entering into upward social mobility which was primarily based on the order in which one was born. Due to these occurrences the Commons wanted to have some form of equality in the French society. Thus they were in constant negotiation with the Crown for better and more privileges.The Estates-General (1789) As a result of King Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting on Estates-General on May 5, 1789 at Versailles. This was the place where representatives from each social Estate could be represented and their grievances voiced. Social tension plaguing the Old Regime was the central grievance of those representing the Third Estate. Because the First and Second Estates were primarily made up of citizens of the nobility they were allowed to override the Third Estates as they contained two out of the three votes available. As a result the Third Estate was left voiceless.The Third Estate offered a vision that privilege in society was to be determined by usefulness rather than birth. Writers of the Enlightenment; Voltaire, Montesquies and Rousseau served to be an encouraging factor to those seeking equality in society as they viewed these privileges enjoyed by the nobility as being rooted in tradition. As a result the Third Estate invited the other estates to join a new legislature. They eventually renamed themselves the National Assembly which was based on the people rather than Estates. By doing this they revealed their intention of becoming the official legislative body of France.In the summer of 1789the National Constituent Assembly declared itself the full authority of the nation. This led to the abolition of feudalism and the system of privileges under the Old Regime. Figure 1. The Estates-General inFrance The Role of the Enlightenment The Enlightenment of the mid-eighteenth century was a philosophical movement that proposed that talent replaced birth as the main determinant of ones social standing. They believed that methods applied to studying the natura l science could be used to correct the problems of society. Advocates of this movement concerned themselves with ‘reason’ and ‘liberty’.The Enlightenment caused people to consider the view that knowledge could only be acquired through careful study and ones reasoning abilities. In order for this to be achieved religious ideology and traditional beliefs had to be forsaken. Thus they encouraged the concept of liberty which they defined as being freedom from religion, press and unreasonable government. These ideas not only inspired the Commons in France but also the politicians and Heads of State. This was what eventually inspired French revolutionaries to construct a declaration that would serve to mold a society based on reason rather than tradition.The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) This Declaration insisted on the freedom and equality of man and gave birth to the revolutionary triad; ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’ . Pu t in place by the National Constituent Assembly; was encouraged by the philosophical and political ideas of the Enlightenment. The declaration puts in place the ideology of Natural rather than religious doctrine and authority. The rights of man were to be secured and recognized by a government of elected representatives. This therefore meant an ending to privilege and feudalism; and equality in France.Clergy, nobles, judges and even ordinary tax payers lost whatever special standing they once had. Each person was now seen as being ‘identical’ before the law. Figure 2. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Ciizen Saint Domingue prior to French Revolution The society in St. Domingue was a replica of the society in France plagued by the Old Regime of social stratification in France. This was introduced to the colony as the Royalist/Metropolitan Whites brought with them to the colony the traditions held by the Old Regime. Conflict between each social group was based on r ace and the acquisition of capital.Tensions between the Whites, Mulattoes and Blacks and more specifically within the white society; tension between the Royalists, Grand and Petite Blancs was plaguing the society in St. Domingue. This segregation within the colony can later be credited as one of the contributing factors of the revolution in 1791, as the French Revolution of 1789 left each group seeking equal rights and privileges within society Social Stratification in St. Domingue The Metropolitan Whites/ Royalists: These were whites who came directly from France to St.Domingue as members of the bureaucracy whose purpose was to see to the Governance of the colony. They enjoyed the commercial privileges of the French bourgeoisie and brought with them to the colony the traditions held by the Old Regime in France of absolutism of the monarchy and the ideology of feudalism. At the head of the bureaucracy was the Governor and Intendant. The King’s representative in the colony was the Governor who was a soldier and aristocrat. His duty in the colony was that of granting concession, being an agent for European merchandise in the colony and colonial merchandise in Europe.The Intendant in the colony had judicial responsibilities as well as seeing to the finance and general administration of the colony. The Metropolitans had extensive privileges and power in the colony that could not be enjoyed by whites below their station. The Grand Blancs: These were wealthy plantation owners, top civil and military officers of St. Domingue. Some of whom had aristocratic origins in France while others were known Creoles. Their ambition in the colony was to regain enough wealth to return to France despite the fact that they were the most prominent of social groups within the society.The Petite Blancs: These were the poor whites of St. Domingue; primarily shop keepers, book keepers and merchants. They were seen by other superior whites as being unproductive within the society, performing no important role within the economy of the colony. It was often thought that the Mulattoes and Blacks could carry out the tasks performed by Petite Blancs if they were to be deported. They were also excluded from privileges enjoyed by the Grand Blancs, however, because they were white it was easier for them to fit into the society. The Mulattoes/Affranchis: These were the children of white planters and slaves.They were exceptionally numerous within the society with the fate of their freedom resting in the hands of their white fathers. By the mid-eighteenth century their economic advances had began to overshadow members of the white society. A number of them participated in the purchase of land and slaves, they ran their own plantations and some were allowed the privilege of being educated in France. It is argued by historians David Barry Gasper and David Patrick Geggus, that the affranchise owned one third of the colony’s plantations, one quarter of the slaves and one quarter of the real estate property.Slaves: The treatment of black slaves in St. Domingue was the worst endured by slaves of the West Indies. Planters had been making immense profits in the colony to the detriment of the slaves. They were worked excessively hard, harshly punished and poorly fed. Because of this every five years the slave population of St. Domingue had to be replenished as the colony held the highest death rate of blacks within the region. Racial Tension and Discrimination in St. Domingue Prior to 1791 The Metropolitan Whites/Royalists looked upon the Grand Blancs with arrogance and disdain despite their wealth and status in society.They too however, were also resented by the Grand Blancs as they thought the Royalists to be wasteful and extravagant. They also hated the fact that they could not hold civil service positions held by the Metropolitans which meant that they had no power over the running of the colony. Similarly the most notable tension between whites can be found between the Grand and Petite Blancs. Although they were of the same colour, the Grand Blancs resented the Petite Blancs as they thought them unproductive to the economy of the colony. Due to their status in society the Petite Blancs were not able to partake in privileges enjoyed by the Grand Blancs.Voting, for example within the colony was based on the amount of property one possessed, thus the Petite Blance were exclude from the administration due to lack of land. The economic advances of the Affranchise within St. Domingue was viewed by whites as being a dangerous trend that could eventually undermine the superiority of the white plantocracy. Thus it became increasingly important to both Colonial Whites and Royalists to enforce white superiority in St. Domingue by legislating against Mulatto equality with whites by repressing their political ambitions and placing them in degrading positions n society despite their wealth and education. This was done to ensure that th e Affranchise remembered their slave origins which made it impossible for them to be equal to whites. The Mulattoes were hated by the Blacks as they showed resentment for their genealogical ties to blacks and slavery. They tried very hard to imitate the lives of the whites and saw to drown out all traces of their origin. Thus the slaves hated them as well as the whites. Due to this the slaves were feared by both the Whites and the Mulattoes as they were vastly outnumbered. Impact of the French Revolution on St.Domingue The events of the revolution in St. Domingue can be credited to the influence of the French Revolution in 1789 as it was the factor which inspired the events in St. Domingue. All social classes in the colony were greatly affected by the French Revolution as the Grand and Petite Blancs, the Affranchise and the Slaves saw the events taking place in France as an opportunity to seize liberty and equality. The Grand Blancs saw the opportunity to secure independence in the colony from the restrictions of the Mother country retarding their economic growth.Thus liberty to the plantocracy meant the removal of Metropolitan controls over the affairs of the colony. For the Petite Blancs, the impact of the ideologies of the French Revolution meant social equality with the Grand Blancs and liberty meant ‘active citizenship’ allowing them to vote freely without the acquisition of land standing in their way. For the Mulattoes in St. Domingue they thought that the revolution in France gave them the opportunity to demand civil and political rights which were denied to them because of their black origin.For the slaves equality and liberty reinforced their aspirations for personal freedom. The Revolt of the Grand Blancs The white planters in St. Domingue had began demanding political representation. The calling of the Estates-General in France in 1789 left them determined to get their interests and grievances voiced in France. Because of this the Grand Blancs supported the revolution taking place in France as for them it meant liberty from the shackles of the Mother country. For them the revolution meant freedom of trade and political control of St.Domingue at the expense of the Petite Blancs, Mulattoes and slaves. However without authority from the National Assembly, the Grand Blancs called elections in St. Domingue for a General Assembly in 1790. As a result the Petite Blancs were excluded from participating in the Assembly due to the lack of land they obtained; the Mulattoes were also excluded from partaking in the Assembly due to their lack of civil and political rights within the colony. Due to their newly found power the Grand Blancs had begun disregarding the authority of the Metropolitan whites and the National Assembly in France.Because of this the Royalist and Petite Blancs and to some extent the Mulattoes untied to crush the revolt of the planters as they preferred the Colonial ties with France and obedience to the Nat ional Assembly. Due to the defeat of their cause the Grand Blancs then turned their fury upon the Affranchise of the colony because of their role aiding the suppression of their revolt. The Revolt of the Affranchise Because of the occurrences of violence by the Grand Blancs against Mulattoes; questions concerning their civil rights and social equality were brought to the attention of the National Assembly.As such there was an attempt made to pacify the Mulattoes in the colony by allowing them equality with the Whites in the Militia. Thus in 1790 a decree was passed by the National Assembly granting voting rights and the right to hold office to all Mulatto ‘persons’ owning property over the age of twenty five who met the income requirements stipulated. However, the decision to ensure the rights of these ‘persons’ was left within the hands of the Grand Blancs who hated Mulattoes and refused to give them the right to vote.Because of this the Mulattoes were for ced to appeal to the Governor complaining that their rights were not being secured. The leader of the Mulattoes, Vincent Oge? threatened to use force if their demands were not met. Thus they encountered violent opposition from the colonial whites which eventually caused the movement to escalate into an armed revolt. Unfortunately the revolt was violently suppressed and leaders executed; however, as a result of the revolt a proposal was put forward by the Colonial Assembly that granted political rights to those born of legally free parents. The Revolt of the Slaves in 1791Figure 3. The revolt of the slaves The question of slavery in France was one of a complicated nature due to the fact that French commerce greatly depended on the production of their colonies which was facilitated by slavery. Thus revolution and resistance in St. Domingue became possible when slavery was challenged in France by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The colony was under the instruction of French laws yet these rights did not relate to the blacks. To the National Assembly the exploitation of slaves was a profitable business as such they had no intention of granting them freedom.The news of the French Revolution and its triad, ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’ was dispersed throughout the colony and slave population via ships and their sailors as well as French revolutionaries who believed in the equality of all. The sailors spoke in excitement to blacks unloading and loading cargo into the ships of the events taking place in France. Upon hearing this, the slaves then realized that they had witnessed similar events that had occurred in the colony to what was happening in France in the name of liberty and equality.The Grand Blancs revolt against the Bureaucracy and in 1790 the revolt of the Mulattoes to the Grand Blancs. Thus upon hearing of the success of the French bourgeoisie the slaves took it as an example which would enable them to gain freedom from their masters. The first sign of unrest within the slaves occurred when they believed that their masters were withholding three free days that the King himself had given them. The first attempt of slaves to gain their free days originated in Port-Salut in the South province.Because the masters refused to comply, the slaves were forced to engage in a conspiracy which was aimed at ensuring their masters granting the rights the King had given them. The conspiracy was however discovered and ringleaders arrested. These occurrences signaled the beginning of the revolutionary struggle of the slaves in the South Province. The slaves of the North were also greatly affected by the occurrences in the South and thus prepared a massive revolt. Simultaneously slave gatherings in the West also appeared similar to the ones in Port-Salut.After a religious ceremony headed by voodoo priest Boukman the revolt aimed at liberty for the slaves began in the North Plain District of Acul in 1791.B I B L I O G R A P H Y Books Bayan, Patrick. ‘The Haitian Revolution and its Effects. ’ Heingmann. 1998 Brians, Paul. ‘Reading about the World: Volume 2’. American Heritage Custom Publishing. 1998 Censer, Jack and Hunt, Lynn. ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution’. American Social History Production Inc. 2001 Gasper, David B. and Geggus, David P. A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean’. Indiana University Press. 1997 Greenwood, Robert and Hamber, Shirley. ‘Emancipation to Emigration’ Macmillan Publishers Limited. 2003 James, C. L. R. ‘The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Overture and the San Domingo Revolution’. Random House Inc. 1963 Websites Bromley, Jason. ‘Resistance and the Haitian Revolution’. scholar. library. miami. edu. 2008 Chavis, Jason. ‘The Estate-General of 1789: Foundation of the French Revolution’ french-history. suite. 101. com 2009

History of Gaming Essay

Gaming has been around since the late 1960’s far later than I had thought, for me I had always thought that the Atari 2600 was the first gaming system known to mankind, and after starting my research I found out how wrong I was. In this part of the teams paper I will discuss the different types of this technology thought it history. In 1967 the first gaming console ever was created and was named the â€Å"Brown Box.† A German born television engineer Ralph Baer and his colleagues created the Brown Box which worked on your basic standard television set. Working with a firm called Sanders Associates, Baer along with co-workers drew up schematics for a game which was called the chase game, and they built a vacuum tube circuit that connected to the television. Two players controlled two squares that basically chased each other on the screen, at that point in time gaming was born. Baer and his associates later added a light fun and developed a total of 12 games for the Brown Box. Fast forward five years after Baer and his associates created the Brown Box, Magnavox began production of the Magnavox Odyssey. The Odyssey was called the first commercial video-game console and was marketed in Magnavox TV dealerships. The Odyssey used six cartridges to play up to twelve games. The Odyssey downfall is that many TV dealers didn’t see any potential in it and along with the false rumor that it only worked in Magnavox televisions hurt the popularity of the gaming systems. In 1972 Nolan Bushnell founded Atari and three years later in 1975, they had their first smash hit with an arcade game called Pong. Atari sold a home version of the game Pong through Sears under the Sears Tele-games label. What made Pong unique was that it produced an on-screen score and sound all by single chip. With his first system Nolan Bushnell and Atari shot to the top of household gaming. Knowing that some of not anything last forever especially a single game system popularity, Nolan Bushnell and Atari started working on a cartridge based system, one that could play multiple games. In 1976 Bushnell Sold Atari to Warner Communications, and Warner immediately backed the Atari project, and the Atari VCS later renamed the Atari 2600 was introduced. The Atari was a big hit and had multiple game hits to go along with it, hits like the ever popular Spaced Invaders, Breakout, Missile Command, and Combat just to name a few. Atari was the first ever massed produced home video gaming system, selling 400,000 systems and hitting sales figures of $120 million dollars during the first Christmas season in 1977. In 1980 Mattel released Intellivision, and was the first to take a run at Atari’s gamming thrown. This sparked what some would like to call a console war between Atari and Mattel. Intellivision featured better game graphics and synthesized voices in video games. Both systems brought on other game developers like Coleco and Activision, but with so many of the games being unlicensed games and no household system lead to gaming industry crash in 1983-84 cause in many companies to file bankruptcy. Nintendo, a Japanese based company became part of the gaming industry in 1985 with its release of the Nintendo Entertainment System. With some of the most popular titles ever like Super Mario Brothers, Metroid, and Legend of Zelda and that of third party games like Tecmo Bowl and RBI baseball, the NES turned the non-believers that didn’t think it was a good idea to get into gaming after a crash, into believers. In 1987 Sega released its gaming system which dwarfed the capabilities that its predecessor, the NES, had offered. It was called the MasterSystem but it didn’t make the splash that many in the Sega camp had thought it would make, due to its lack of third-party games and other things it was the demise of the MasterSystem and the first failing of Sega. Sega went directly back to the drawing board and soon after released its first hit the Sega Genesis in 1989. Backed by many game developers like Electronic Arts, the Sega Genesis opened the door for the first ever battle for supremacy for gaming dominance. Four years after the release of the Nintendo Entertainment System, Nintendo released its second smash hit, with the Gameboy. Gameboy was dubbed the as the first ever handheld gaming console and had a black and white screen. Tetris one of the most popular Gameboy games ran the Gameboy sales through the roof. With many make-overs throughout the course of history Gameboy continued to stay relevant in gaming. 1990 was the release of SNK’s Neo-Geo a 24 bit home gaming system that was said to be many years ahead of its competitors and its time. The Neo-Geo had one problem, it wasn’t 2-D graphics those were great, it wasn’t its arcade level quality that was what everyone wanted, it was neither of those two things that helped the Neo-Geo fail it was its $650.00 price tag and its $200.00 games that took the Neo-Geo from great innovation to under achiever. In 1991 Nintendo releases the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Beaten to the punch by Sega with its gaming system the Sega Genesis, the 16 bit SNES had some catching up to do. It wasn’t long before the SNES thanks to its technological superiority, had overtaken the Sega Genesis thanks to its big name games like Super Mario Brothers, Metroid, and Zelda. By the end of the 90’s Sega Genesis was no more than an afterthought for SNES who had taken over the 16 bit era and the gaming industry. It wasn’t till the year 1995 that Nintendo again was challenged for its gaming dominance. Sony introduced the Sony PlayStation a 32 bit CD-ROM based technology and has been said to be the most popular gaming system ever. The games had three dimensional gameplay much better than the 2-D of the past. What was the most attraction to any gamer was the price of the games which dramatically dropped compared to those of cartridge based games. It was also in 1995 the second day of September that the Sega franchise basically started its demise. This day marked the release of the Sega Saturn, which was dubbed the best worst system, according to many. Because it was pushed up to get out ahead of the newly announced PlayStation 2, it gave the Sony corporation time to sit back and polish the upcoming PlayStation 2 and learn from the mistakes that the Sega Saturn was making. In 1996 the Nintendo franchise countered the PlayStation with the Nintendo64, the last cartridge based system. Although the cartridges loaded faster than the CD-ROMS of PlayStation the Nintendo64 couldn’t even keep up with the amount of games that were released for the PlayStation, leaving the PlayStation on top of the gaming for the time being. It was in 1998 when Sega made its final push as a contender in the world of gaming with its release of the CD-based system Dreamcast, which incorporated a 128-bit processing system. The Dreamcast was the first system that had a modem which allowed for internet connectivity that brought on the ability to play online, download extra content and updated to the system itself. This would be the last time that anyone would here from the Sega franchise in the console industry. In 2001 Sega discontinued the Dreamcast and announced that it would be leaving the console market for good and taking its Sonic franchise with them. Four years after the release of the Nintendo64 and five years after the first initial PlayStation, Sony releases its second version of the PlayStation 2. The first 128 bit system featured backwards compatibility allowing the PS2 to play the older PlayStations games, and also could be used as a DVD player. Not only was the PS2 named most popular 128 bit system but with its release it marked the rise of console popularity played over the internet. 2001 was the introduction of the old guy with a new system and the new kid on the block in gaming. Nintendo hit the gaming market again going away from its usual cartridge based systems and introducing its first ever CD based system. The GameCube was marketed more for the younger demographics and is said to be what made the system flop and sell short. Along with the inability to connect to the internet it was called a one trick pony and was behind in the gaming world and home entertainment systems. The now new kid on the block Microsoft introduced its own gaming system the X-box. The PC giant used PC technology when building the X-Box which allowed for greater performance. Although the X-Box’s technology proved greater performance when compared to that of the 128 bit PS2 it still remained behind the number of sales that the PS2 had leaving Sony alone at that top of the gaming world. In 2002 Nintendo stepped back in with the Gameboy Advance and again in 2004 with the Nintendo DS. Some would argue and go as far as to say that all Nintendo did was step on its on toes with how they released the two versions so closely together. By doing so experts say that they made the Gameboy obsolete by releasing the DS so soon. Playstation soon joined Nintendo in the hand held gaming evolution, challenging Nintendo’s dominance. The PlayStation Portable like the Gameboy and DS featured wireless capability, high graphics and non-gaming functions mimicking PC-based devices. 2005 also marked the release of the Microsoft X-Box 360. The processing power of the X-Box 360 was said to be unrivaled, and all came with an internal hard drive, played DVDs and had the ability to connect four controllers at one time wirelessly, as well as connecting to the internet. The Nintendo Wii was released in 2006 and featured a built in WiFi for online game play, wireless controllers and Bluetooth. The wireless controllers weren’t new to gaming but what Nintendo did bring to the table with their wireless controllers was the motion sensor technology, allowing the game to mimic the performance of the actual player. 2006 is also when the Sony franchise again exerted its dominance and rivaled back against Microsoft X-Box 360 with the PlayStation 3. The PS3 came with an internal hard drive as well and the ability not only to play DVD’s but also Blue Ray DVD, along with its ability to connect to the internet wirelessly and connect multiple controllers wirelessly, it is said to be still atop the gaming industry, but again that’s all in who you ask. These two systems, PlayStation 3 and X-Box 360, along with the Nintendo Wii brings us to where we are now with gaming in what is called the 8th Generation of gaming. Every year the three gaming giants Sony, Microsoft and Nintendo continue to wow us with different and greater gaming innovation that keeps the rivalry for gaming dominance going on and going strong. In the last few years the X-Box 360 stepped up the gaming war and has released technology that gets rid of the hand held controllers all together! The Kinect from Microsoft has really stepped up its technology and has gotten rid of the controller period. The Kinect set the Guinness Book of World Record for the fastest gaming system ever and comes highly recommended by many consumers and game developers. Recently it was reported that Microsoft X-Box 360 is looking to compete with cable television providers announcing that its consoles will allow the gamer to watch television through it. All of the consoles allow you to watch things like Net Flicks and get on the internet and surf the net, but rivaling cable providers that’s a big step. I look for Sony and Nintendo to sit back and wait to see where this goes before they follow in the footsteps of Microsoft, as they have previously done, but I don’t think they will jump right on board with this because of fear of failure and losing money. If you are a gamer a hardcore gamer you have to be excited for the future of gaming, from a standpoint it looks bright and exciting. With rumors of Sony releasing the Playstation 4 and the system having touch screen technology; it has all the gamers grinning from ear to ear about what the future of gaming actually may be. Gaming has already developed full 3D gaming technology and 3D moti on sensors and powerful graphics and they look to continue to improve upon these technologies. Many have argued that consoles in the future will eventually fall by the wayside making way for hand held portable gaming to be the dominate gaming systems in the future. Of course this upsets many hardcore gamers because they don’t see that as being a plus since many like to play their games on a larger scaled screen. With that being said many say the IPhone 8 will probably be the future of gaming and going as far as to say it although it is a hand held device it will be able to plug into a television set or even connect wirelessly to continue to give that big game experience. Many say that the future of gaming is mobile, digital, and cloud gaming. The better gaming system is said to be one that you can take anywhere and everywhere. Most of the time even of if home many gamers are even using mobile gaming at home, some experts say up to 47% of gamers are mobile gaming even at home. Mobile gaming is not just the casual gaming it used to be and has changed the way all gamers vi ew games. Spending approximately 16 hours a week compared to that of the 18 hours of traditional gaming some say digital is the way of the future and hardware doesn’t matter anymore. The type of hardware you use never really ever did matter, it has always been about the software. Hardware will be less and less relevant in the future and it will be more about the software. With cloud gaming it is becoming more and more of a reality and with two client services already launched it is coming along full circle. The angle of cloud gaming is to offer high definition gaming on any television or device that can receive a broadband signal with even high-end games that can be played on devices that get low power. In a CNNTech report back in September of 2008 had reported that a future release of the Emotiv EPOC headset. The Emotiv EPOC headset is said to be the first Brain Computer Interface and would be able to pick up on over 30 different expressions all by processing real time brain activity. With this technology many enthusiast say that this type of technology makes movies like The Matrix and the Star Trek Holodeck more of a reality in the future. Me personally I am kind of skeptical about that type of technology, and even though experts say that being able to control a computer with your mind is the ultimate quest of human to machine interaction, I still don’t feel any better. In those movies, well all except Star Trek, the machine had a way to take over. So all I see is me playing the video game and the machine taking over my mind and it controlling me and then the earth being run by machines. Well that is how it works in the movies hopefully this won’t be the case. The goal of this though is for the interactions of machines to mimic the way interaction with humans and they say it will ultimately bring communities closer together, so I guess that is one thing we will have to wait to see in the future. So with that being said there is no clear cut way to know which way the future of gaming is actually going, but seeing how far it has come since the Brown Box it is very interesting to sit back and see what the technology produces. At one point in time it was all about transistors and diodes and now it’s about multiple processors, internal memory, and real life graphics. What’s more gaming consoles are no longer just gaming consoles they are now the full true definition of Home Entertainment, with internet connection, streaming music and video and HDD, it is truly a new age for gaming. Social media and social networks has become a big part of many of our lives, well I really should say all of our lives. With that gaming has also being a part of that as it is being input into the Social Medias like Facebook. Many game makers look to theses Social Medias to see exactly what the gamers are taking to and what they are not taking to. World of Warcraft is one of those who uses social media to help them develop more of what they think users want to see and how they want the game to operate and it is actually one of the largest virtual game worlds due to just that along with Second Life which heralds itself as a virtual social world. Social Medias focus on building blocks, identity, conversation, sharing, presence, relationships, reputation, and groups, and many gaming systems that can connect to the World Wide Web can do just that. These gaming technologies give you the opportunity to engage with others from around the world no matter where they may be. Facebook has gaming that lets you connect with others and build a farm or a city and share with each other and allows you to help keep up someone else’s farm, building relationships with people anywhere anytime. No matter what you think about gaming and the gaming technology it has come a long way from where it started and there is no telling where it will go. It is a mainstay in the lives of many of people and I am sure that the technology will only get better or more interesting from here into the future. I do myself wonder what is next will the whole computer to brain interaction ever come full circle or is it just a past thought. Will Microsoft, Sony and Nintendo continue to stay on top or will a unknown company come along and knock all of them off the throne. I guess all we can do is sit back watch wait and see what that next big technology is and who will be the first to come out with it. Right now it’s more or less of a waiting game, the Kinect was a big jump and gaming technology and, I love to sit and watch my kids play on it, I have even been known to play on it myself, gaming technology is what keeps many of us known and connected so there is nothing wrong with that. Works Cited Admin. (2012). The History of Video Game Consoles. computergameoffer.com. Bellis, M. (n.d.). Computer and Video Game History. About.com. Edwards, B. (2009). 30 Years of Handheld Game Systems. PC World. Johnson, J. (2008). From Atari Joy Board to Wii fit. BBG. Melanson, D. (2006). A Brief History of Handheld Video games. engadget.